Moral theology

2139. The Quasi-Integral Parts of Justice.—The integral parts of a virtue are certain functions necessary for the perfect use of the virtue; for example, memory, perception, docility and quickness are needed for the fullest exercise of prudence (see 1648 sqq.). These parts are called here “quasi-integral,” so as not to be confused with the properly integral parts, or divisions of quantity, in a material composite. In its first use “integral part” is spoken of bodily things; in its derived use of incorporeal things (such as virtues). The two previous articles treated the subjective parts of justice; the present article will begin with a consideration of the integral parts and the opposite sins.

2140. The integral parts of justice are expressed in the words of Psalm xxxiii. 15—“Turn away from evil, and do good”—for the perfectly just man will both establish the equality of justice by giving others their dues, and will preserve that equality by refraining from injuries.

(a) Thus, these integral parts are acts of virtue, and hence the avoidance of evil here is not a purely negative attitude; it includes a positive repudiation by the will of all wish to harm others, and it is exercised especially when one is attacked and yet refuses to resort to injustice.

(b) These integral parts of justice are also distinct, one from the other. The other moral virtues regulate the passions by bringing them to the moderation that lies midway between two evil extremes, and hence in respect to those virtues to turn away from evil is the same thing as to do good. But justice regulates human operations and external things both by reducing them to due equality and also by avoiding that which upsets the equality, and thus in the matter of justice it is one thing to do good, another thing to avoid evil.

(c) These integral parts of justice are also special, that is, they are distinct from other virtues. For, while every virtue turns away from evil and does good, the two acts we are now considering do these things with the express purpose of fulfilling justice. Thus, he who observes the commands and prohibitions of the law in order to render to God and the common good their dues, is perfect in general or legal justice; he who gives to other individuals what is owed them and also avoids doing them injury, is perfect in particular justice. To the two integral parts of justice are opposed the two sins of transgression and omission (see 35-39).

2141. The Potential Parts of Justice.—The potential parts of justice, that is, its annexed virtues, are those good habits that are subsidiary to justice, partaking in some degree, but not entirely, of its nature or activity. We saw above (1664 sqq.) that wise deliberation and wise decision belong to prudence, inasmuch as they are concerned with the government of conduct by reason, but that they fall short of its principal act, which is wise direction, and hence they are counted as potential parts. In like manner, there are a number of virtues which must be assigned to justice, since they regulate man’s will towards others, but which must be considered as its potential parts, because they do not share in one or the other of the two remaining essential notes of strict justice, namely, that a return is given which is equal to a debt, and that the debt is owed on account of a strict or legal right (see 1692).

(a) Thus, to God man owes whatever honor and veneration he manifests, but with all his efforts man can never pay to God a worship that is equal to the debt. Thus, man cannot sufficiently thank God for His benefits: “What return can I make to the Lord for all that He has done for me?” (Psalm cxv. 12). The virtue of religion, therefore, is a potential part of justice.

(b) To parents children cannot make a full return for the benefits of life and upbringing, and the same may be said of one’s country: “A due return is out of the question in honors paid to the gods and to parents ... but a person is considered to be virtuous if he pays such regard as lies within his power” (Aristotle, _Ethics_, lib. VIII, cap. 16). Hence, the virtue of piety is also a potential part of justice. In exceptional cases, however, a child may make an equal or even a greater return to his parents for the benefits received from them; for example, by saving his father from death he makes an equal return for the benefit of life, and by converting his parents to the faith he gives them spiritual life, which is more valuable than the natural life he received from them.

(c) To men of virtue we are unable to make a sufficient return for the good they do us by their instruction and example, and hence the honor we show them is less than the benefit we receive from them. The virtue of reverence (_observantia_) is then a potential part of justice.

2143. Degrees of Moral Debt.—The remaining potential parts of justice are those in which there is not a legal debt, which is enforced by some law, but a moral debt to which one is obliged from the decency or the greater decency of virtue. There are, then, two degrees of moral debt.

(a) A moral debt is more urgent, when without its fulfillment one cannot keep to the decency of virtue, that is, one cannot preserve the character of a virtuous man. Thus, if a moral debt is considered from the side of the debtor, he is obliged to show himself in words and deeds to others what he really is, has been, or intends to be (virtue of truthfulness); if the debt be viewed from the side of the creditor to whom some recompense is owed, there is the duty of gratitude to him for his benefits and of punishment for his injuries (virtues of gratitude and vindication). These parts of justice just mentioned are readily distinguishable from acts that pertain to general or particular justice and that are owed as legal debts. Thus, truthful testimony on the witness stand is a legal obligation, for the person who questions has a strict right to hear the truth; but veracity in social intercourse, or the habit of speaking the truth to others, is a moral obligation, one imposed by God but not enforced legally. Compensation for services bestowed according to contract is a legal duty, and the debtor can be compelled to pay; but thankfulness for gifts or other benefits is only a moral duty, and generally laws do not take account of ingratitude. Punishment of a delinquent by public authority is an act of commutative justice; but punishment meted out by a private person in self-defense, who appeals to the law or who forcibly but lawfully repels an injury, is an act of a virtue annexed to justice.

(b) A moral debt is less urgent, when without its fulfillment one can preserve virtue, but not the more becoming or more perfect course of virtue. The chief examples here are the virtues of friendship or affability and of liberality. To treat others in a friendly manner and to make oneself agreeable in company is suitable, not chiefly because of any benefits one has received from others, but because one is better for this oneself and by it the ways of life are made easier for all. Likewise liberality is not due, but it shows a better disposition as to money and other temporal goods to be willing to distribute them to others willingly and generously. Without friendship and liberality the peace and harmony of social intercourse may be maintained, but with them it is maintained more easily and receives an added grace and distinction.

2144. Epieikeia.—The above-mentioned potential parts of justice are adjuncts of particular justice. There remains one more virtue to be noted, that of epieikeia or equity, which pertains to legal justice. This is a subjective part of justice, since it is the superior function of legal justice, guiding it to follow what is substantial right, and preserving it from the danger of mere legalism or over-strict interpretation or application of Written law (see 358). With this, the crowning virtue of justice, the enumeration of its parts is brought to a close.

2145. The Virtue of Religion.—We shall now proceed to treat of the various parts of justice in the order in which they were given above (2142-2144), beginning with the virtue that renders to God His due. Religion (holiness) is defined as “a moral virtue that disposes us to offer to God the worship and honor that belong to Him as the supreme Author of all things.”

(b) It is an inclination, that is, it is a habit of the soul or the exercise of that habit in some act. The acts of religion are either elicited by it or commanded by it, according as they are its own proper activities and proceed directly from it and are directed immediately to God (e.g., acts of adoration, sacrifice, prayer), or belong to some other virtue employed by religion for the honor of God; for example, to visit the widows and orphans in their tribulation is an act of mercy, to keep oneself unspotted from this world is an act of temperance, but when used for the honor and glory of God these acts are also acts of religion (James, i. 27).

(e) It offers to God the tribute of worship, that is, some internal or external work done in acknowledgment of God’s Majesty and with the purpose of impressing the worshipper or others with the sense of His greatness, or it is the sense of that greatness.

2146. Religion as a Moral Virtue.—(a) Religion takes its rank among the moral, not among the theological, virtues. A theological virtue has the Last End for its immediate object or subject-matter (e.g., faith is concerned directly with God, since it believes Him and in Him), and has no mean of virtue (e.g., faith cannot go to extremes by believing God too much); whereas a moral virtue has the means to God for its immediate object (e.g., justice is concerned directly with the actions we owe to others) and it must observe the golden mean (e.g., justice must pay the just price, neither more nor less, and at the proper time, place, and to the proper person, etc.). Now, it is clear that religion has for its immediate object the due performance of worship, although God is the person for whose sake it is offered and His excellence the foundation of its necessity; and also that one must observe moderation in worship as to circumstances of place, time, etc., although it is impossible to be extreme in the quantity or fervor one gives to worship, since even the best efforts will fall short of the honor God deserves (Ecclus., xliii. 33).

(b) Religion is the greatest of the moral virtues, since the person in whose favor it is exercised is God Himself, and its obligation is correspondingly stricter than that of the other virtues. General and particular justice are owed to creatures, but the claim of a creature is much less than that of God. There is no contradiction in making religion a part of justice and then preferring it to justice, for it is more correct to speak of the integral and potential parts of virtues as quasi-parts, since they are called parts only from analogy to parts that are found in material or living things, though they are not similar to those parts in all respects (see 1647, 1648, 2139). Neither does the fact that religion cannot pay in full make it inferior to justice, since in matters of virtue good will take precedence over the ability to pay. Since religion is the supreme moral virtue, irreligion is the chief offense against the moral virtues (e.g., malicious blasphemy is worse than injustice or intemperance).

2147. Superiority of Religion as a Virtue.—Religion, therefore, is superior to the following virtues: (a) it is superior to legal justice, the chief of the moral virtues that deal with human and natural good; (b) it is superior to humility, the chief of the moral virtues moderative of the passions; (c) it is superior to mercy, the greatest of the virtues that relieve distress, for religion is offered to God, not for His utility, but for His external glory and our benefit; (d) it is greater than repentance, for it honors God, while repentance only disposes or prepares for satisfaction to His honor; (e) it is greater than large external offerings made to God without spirit, for “obedience is better than victims” (I Kings, xv. 22); that is, the internal acts of religion (reverence and devotion) are of more importance than external acts of worship conducted with great pomp or magnificence but without the inner reverence, the obedience or other dispositions pleasing to God.

2148. Necessity of the Acts of Religion.—(a) The internal acts (devotion and prayer) are chiefly necessary, for these are exercised by the soul, and it is through them that the external acts are made truthful: “God is a spirit and those who adore Him must adore in spirit and in truth” (John, iv. 24).

(b) The external acts (adoration, sacrifice, etc.) are also necessary to man. God does not need these acts (Psalm xlix. 13), it is true, for no creature can add to the glory God has from Himself. But man needs the elevation and perfection which he receives from communication with the Supreme Being, and, as he is not all spirit, he must employ symbols and ceremonies to arouse, hold and strengthen the affections of his soul. Hence, although the ceremonial law of the Old Testament was abolished by Christ (see 342), the Christian religion recognizes the need of ceremonies, as is plain both from the Scriptures and the teaching and practice of the Church at all times. In the New Testament we read that Our Lord used vocal prayer, prayed on His knees, and made use of sacred hymns; and like external acts of religion are ascribed to Sts. Peter, Paul, and Stephen (Luke, xxii. 31; Matt., xxvi. 39; Acts, ii. 42, vii. 59, ix. 40). Public worship is also a necessity on account of the nature of the Church as a visible society.

2149. The Internal Acts of Religion.—These internal acts are offerings made to God of the worship of the soul itself, and they may be reduced chiefly to two: (a) devotion, which is the offering of the will and the highest act of religion, since from the will the other acts arise; (b) prayer, which is the offering of the intellect; for in prayer the thoughts of the mind rise to God as an oblation made to Him.

2150. Definition of Devotion.—Devotion is defined as “the will to give oneself readily to those things that pertain to the divine service.” We find an example of it in Exod., xxxv. 21, where it is said that the multitude offered first fruits to the Lord with a most ready and devout mind. One who is devoted to another is strongly attached to that other’s interests, and so one who is devout is zealous for the service of God.

(a) Thus, devotion is an act of the will, that is, an offering of oneself to the service of God, the Last End. But devotion will be found in other acts in so far as they are done under the will’s impulse, such as prayer, adoration, sacrifice. The looks, gestures, and voice of those who pray or take part in services of divine worship are influenced by internal devotion, and so become fitting expressions of honor shown to God and an inspiration to beholders.

(b) Devotion contains a ready willingness, that is, the devout person is quick to choose the divine honor as a purpose, quick also to select and to employ suitable means for this purpose. The great model of this is Our Lord, who declared that His very food was to serve His Father (John, iv. 34).

(c) Devotion is exercised in things that pertain to the divine service, that is, to the worship or honor of God. Thus, he who offers himself to God intending the offering as an act of spiritual union or friendship exercises the virtue of charity, while he who forms the intention of doing good in order to glorify God exercises devotion. But devotion and charity are not separated, for charity inspires devotion and devotion nourishes charity.

(a) Thus, emotion or pleasure of a non-religious kind is not devotion, though sometimes mistaken for it when the emotion or pleasure is of an elevating kind and occasioned by religious exercises. Neither esthetic joy (e.g., over the music, the ceremonies, the architecture of the church), nor literary pleasure (e.g. over a sublime passage of Holy Writ or a charming liturgical composition), nor intellectual satisfaction (e.g., over the refinement and culture imparted by religious truths), is necessarily joined with that strong attachment to God and inclination to do His will which is the soul of devotion.

(b) Spiritual consolations are sometimes called devotion, but they are not the same thing as the devotion we now speak of. Substantial devotion with which we are now concerned is in the will and consists in the strong inclination to praise and honor God, whereas accidental devotion is rather in the sensible appetite and consists in a feeling of sweetness or elevation in exercises of piety which sometimes reacts upon the body, as when a devout person weeps for joy at the thought of God. Substantial devotion is essential and should be maintained, even though there is no feeling of attraction or fervor. An example of this is furnished by Our Lord, who prayed earnestly during the agony in the garden and the desolation on the cross. Accidental devotion is not of itself evil, nor useless, and it may be desired and prayed for; but it is dangerous for those persons who are puffed up by it, or who become inordinately attached to it, or who are disposed to mistake it for substantial devotion, for, like the consoling vision of Thabor, it is passing and is not an end in itself.

(c) Devotions are various forms of external cult shown to God, Christ, the Blessed Virgin, the Saints, celebrated shrines, etc., whether of a liturgical or a popular, of a public or a private kind. Examples are the Forty Hours’ Devotion, novenas, consecrated days and months, the use of scapulars, medals, etc., pilgrimages, and the like. All these devotions that have the approval of the Church are good and useful in themselves. But devotees often made a bad use of them, substituting devotions for devotion and the non-essential for the essential, as when religion is made to center in pictures or music or a sentimental attachment for some favorite Saint. Persons who multiply external observances may be without the least degree of real devotion.

2152. External and Internal Cause of Devotion.—The external cause of devotion is God, who by grace bestows the will of serving Him gladly, and therefore the Church prays God to bestow upon us the disposition of piety and devotion, and to increase in us devotion unto salvation. But there is also an internal cause, namely, mental prayer or consideration of divine things, for the will follows on the intellect. Hence, it is impossible to animate external acts of worship with true devotion, unless one practises daily or frequent mental prayer. The subjects of mental prayer that promote devotion are reducible to two:

(a) one should think on one’s own weakness (sins, dangers, temptations, etc.) and one’s need of God, for this serves to remove the impediments to devotion. Those who would be devoted to God must free themselves from presumption and self-confidence in the spirit of the pilgrim going up to the Temple who said; “I will raise my eyes to the mountains from which help cometh to me” (Psalm cxx, 1);

(b) one should think on points that will excite the love of God, such as the thought of His goodness, the memory of His benefits, the mysteries of the life of Christ; for these considerations by inspiring charity will thereby indirectly introduce devotion to God. “It is good for me to cling fast to God and to place my hope in the Lord,” said the Psalmist, after he had thought over the blessings received from Providence (Psalm lxxii. 28).

2153. Prayer.—Prayer can be taken in various senses. (a) Thus, in the widest sense prayer is any act of religion or a holy life. St. Augustine says that a good life is the best of all prayers, and the command of Christ that we pray always has been understood to mean that we should always follow good. (b) In a less wide sense, prayer is the raising of the mind to God, in order to praise, adore, thank Him, etc. The motive of veneration here present distinguishes prayer from mere thoughts about God as when one studies or discusses theological subjects to satisfy curiosity or to impart information.

(c) In its strict sense, prayer is the asking for suitable things from God. By suitable things are meant such as are lawful and becoming, and hence it would not be a prayer, but a mockery, to ask God for help to accomplish sin or for miracles in trivial matters. We are now considering prayer in its strict and less wide senses.