Moral theology

2685. The general duties of the ministers and recipients of the Sacraments have been outlined in the previous Article. The principles therein given are the basis of the special duties that pertain to each of the seven Sacraments. In this and the remaining Articles, therefore, it will suffice to apply without explaining anew the rules already given and to add the special details proper to each Sacrament.

2686. The Sacrament of Baptism.—The first and most essential Sacrament is Baptism (Greek, washing), which may be defined: “The Sacrament of regeneration by water in the word” (Catechism of the Council of Trent, page 163). The internal grace of the Sacrament is expressed by regeneration, the external sign by water and the word.

(a) The effect of Baptism is regeneration, for it cleanses from sin and penalty, and makes him who was a child of wrath to be a child of God and a co-heir of Christ. Baptism also christens, since it seals one with the indelible character of Christian, or member of the Church. As all are under the original curse by birth from Adam, so all who would inherit blessing are in need of this new birth through Christ (see 2661): “Unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God” (John, iii. 5).

(b) The material element (remote matter) of Baptism is water, that is, any and every form of liquid which in common estimation is pure and unchanged water (e.g., water taken from the ocean, from streams, fountains, or wells; water melted from snow, ice or hail; water gathered from steam, dew, or mist; chemical and mineral water). But animal and plant fluids, though they contain water, are looked upon as distinct substances, and hence Baptism cannot be administered with milk, blood, spittle, sweat, oil, flower or fruit juices (e.g., wine, cider), or extracts of barks or roots. Doubtful matter are liquids that, while in large part composed of water, seem to be generally regarded as not water (e.g., thin soup, tea or coffee, light beer); and hence only in necessity can these be lawfully used for Baptism.

(c) The formal element of Baptism is the word or the formula appointed by Christ. In the Latin Church the words are: “I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,” Almost every word in this form is necessary for the sense given by Christ, and hence almost any omission makes it necessary, or at least lawful, to repeat Baptism (see 2655, 2682). The declaration of the form demands that the application of the water (proximate matter) be made in the manner of an ablution (i.e., by sprinkling, pouring or immersion). If sprinkling or pouring is used, the body of the recipient (i.e., the skin of his head) must be washed (i.e., the water must touch the head and flow thereon) by the baptizer (i.e., the person who pronounces the words must pour or sprinkle the water). But in case of necessity one may use the opinion that Baptism is valid when the water touches only the hair or some part distinct from the head, or even the afterbirth of a fetus.

(a) Solemn Baptism is that which is administered with all the rites prescribed by the Liturgy. It requires consecrated water, sponsors and special ceremonies; its minister is a clergyman (ordinarily the parish-priest or Ordinary, extraordinarily a delegated deacon); its place is the baptistery or church. In the Baptism of adults even greater solemnity may be used, for there is a special rite of administration, and the Church recommends that this Baptism be performed when possible by the Ordinary, or at least in cathedral churches, and on the vigil of Easter or Pentecost.

(b) Private Baptism is given in danger of death, or when an adult convert is rebaptized conditionally (Canon 759). It requires only true and natural water, though the water should be as clean and decent as possible, and baptismal or blessed water is preferable; generally the simple form without other rite suffices; sponsors are not necessary, unless they can be had without difficulty, but if possible at least one or two witnesses should be present; the Baptism may be given in the private home or the hospital or other place where the candidate is staying; anyone who has the use of reason and is able to perform the rite may act as minister. When several persons suitable to minister private Baptism are present, the order of preference to be followed is: priest, deacon, subdeacon, cleric, layman, woman; but a woman should be preferred to a man if modesty calls for this, or if the woman is better acquainted with the manner of baptizing. It is considered a serious sin needlessly to prefer a non-priest to a worthy priest, a non-Catholic to a Catholic, an outsider to the parish-priest. If possible, parents should not baptize their own children, since it is more becoming that the spiritual parent and the carnal parent be different persons.

2688. Duties of Parish-Priests as to Baptism.—(a) Before Baptism.—Baptismal water should be blessed, added to or renewed, as the ritual regulations of one’s place require; the faithful should be frequently admonished in sermons of the serious duty of having their infants baptized as soon as possible (Canon 770); the people should also be told (especially midwives, physicians and surgeons) how lay Baptism is to be given validly (Canon 743).

(b) At the Time of Baptism.—Converts preparing for Baptism should be well instructed in the principal religious truths (viz, those contained in the Creed), and precepts (viz., the laws of the Decalogue and of the Church, see 914 sqq.), and prayers (viz, the Our Father, the acts of faith, hope, charity, and contrition); and they should learn the nature and effects of Baptism. The parish-priest may delegate a deacon to baptize solemnly in his place, if there is a sufficient reason, as when he himself is impeded by sickness, absence, or occupation (Canon 741).

(c) After Baptism.—The pastor in virtue of his office has the responsibility of attending to the registration of baptisms in the proper book (Canon 777). The registration should be made without delay—that is, before the sponsors have departed, or immediately after the ceremony, or at least on the same day, if possible; the entry should be made accurately and legibly. The duty of keeping proper baptismal records is considered grave, since important evils would follow on their neglect.

2689. Duties of Parents and Guardians in Reference to Baptism.—(a) As to Administration of Baptism.—Parents are obliged under grave sin not to expose their children to the loss of salvation by undue delay of Baptism (see 2344, 2630). If there is danger of death, a child must be baptized at once; if there is no immediate danger of death, the child must nevertheless, on account of the absolute necessity of Baptism, be baptized as soon as possible. Some moralists consider a needless delay gravely sinful if it exceeds three or four days; others, if it exceeds ten or eleven days. Since infants can be baptized in the womb, a mother is not obliged to undergo the Caesarean operation to ensure Baptism; but she may permit the operation for the sake of a more certain Baptism, unless her obligations to husband or other children will suffer on account of the danger to her life. If a mother dies in pregnancy, the fetus should be extracted and baptized. The duty here rests with the relatives and the physician (Canon 746).

(b) As to Details of Baptism.—Parents should choose suitable names for their children, avoiding such as are obscene, ridiculous, or impious. It is advisable that the name of a Saint or of some other person distinguished for holiness be chosen, for this will be of a spiritual advantage to the child and an edification to others. Parents have the right to appoint the sponsors of their infant children, and should choose only those who are canonically admissible. If Baptism has been administered at home, the parents should, if the child survives, bring it as soon as possible to the church for conditional Baptism, or for the baptismal ceremonies (Canons 759, 760).

2690. Sponsors.—From early times the Church has required in Baptism the use of sponsors, and the reasons for this usage will appear from the duties of these god-parents. The present law (Canons 762 sqq.) retains the ancient tradition, and prescribes as a serious duty that in Solemn Baptism (even of adults, whenever possible) there shall be at least one sponsor (male or female), and that not more than two be used, one a male and the other a female.

(a) Requirements for Validity—Since the sponsor takes obligations, he must have the use of reason and give consent to the office; since he is charged with the duty of spiritual guidance, he must be baptized and not be a member of a heretical or schismatic sect; since he exercises an office of honor, he must not be under the displeasure of the Church by sentence of excommunication or the like; since he is to act as spiritual father, he must not be the parent or spouse of the baptized; since he is to stand for the baptized person, he must be designated by the latter or his parents or by the minister. The sponsor must also indicate (in person or by proxy) his acceptance of the care of the baptized person by physically touching him at the moment of Baptism (either by holding the infant over the font, or by placing a hand on the candidate), or immediately after the Baptism (by raising from the waters or receiving from the hands of the minister the one who has been immersed, or by taking from the font one who has been baptized by pouring). Non-Catholics, therefore, may not be sponsors, but to avoid great offense or other serious evil they may sometimes be admitted as witnesses or honorary sponsors (see 956 sqq.).

(b) Requirements for Lawfulness.—The sponsor should have reached his fourteenth year (unless the minister sees fit for a just cause to admit a younger person), and should know the rudiments of faith; he must be a person of respectability among Catholics, and hence one who is notorious on account of certain penalties or on account of crime or of membership in the Freemasons is not acceptable; he must be free to act as sponsor, and hence religious and clerics in Major Orders must have permission of the superior qualified in each instance to grant this permission.

(b) These obligations are grave, since the matter is grave; but, as the care of children falls principally upon the parents, it is only when the parents neglect their duty that the sponsors are held to do what they can for the instruction and correction of their god-children (Catechism of Council of Trent, page 175).

2692. Duties of Adult Recipients of Baptism or of Those Who Have the Use of Reason.—(a) Before Baptism.—An unbaptized person who has faith and who sees the necessity of Baptism, is gravely obliged to ask for Baptism at once, if he is in danger of death, or as soon as he conveniently can, if he is not in danger of death; for since Baptism is the divinely appointed means of entering the Church and of sharing in its privileges, he who would delay it unduly would disobey an important command of God and would be seriously neglectful of his own salvation. For a sufficient reason, however (e.g., for the sake of instruction or probation, or to avoid persecution), Baptism may be delayed even for years; but the catechumen should then make at once an act of contrition or charity so as to obtain the benefit of Baptism of desire. Converts should prepare for Baptism by taking a course of instructions, or, when there is danger of death, a summary instruction (791 sqq.).

(b) At Baptism.—The internal dispositions include, besides intention, faith and repentance: “He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved” (Mark, xvi. 16); “Do penance and be baptized” (Acts, ii. 38). There must be an explicit faith in the four chief mysteries (see 789). In this country converts who are being baptized conditionally make an abjuration and profession of faith before Baptism, and go to confession and receive conditional absolution after Baptism. The Code recommends that those who are well receive Baptism fasting; and that, unless grave reason excuses, the neophyte assist at Mass and receive Communion after his Baptism (Canon 753).

(c) After Baptism.—Since Baptism makes one a member of the Church, those who receive it are subject to church laws. The promises made in Baptism are not strictly vows, but an engagement of loyalty to the faith and the commandments (see 2191).

2693. Duties of the Minister of Baptism.—(a) In Reference to the Parents.—If the parents insist on giving an unsuitable name to their child, the pastor should silently add a suitable name of some Saint chosen by himself, and should inscribe both names in the register (Canon 761). A child of non-Catholic parents should not be baptized by Catholics, unless this can be done without injury to the natural right of the parents of training their own children and without danger to the future perseverance of the child. Hence these children, if infants, should not be baptized against the will of their parents unless they are in danger of death and can be baptized without too great inconvenience; but if a child is able to judge for himself, or if there is no parental opposition (at least not of both parents), and there are good reasons to believe that the child will be brought up as a Catholic, he may be baptized (Canons 750, 751).

(b) In Reference to the Sponsors.—If a sponsor cannot be admitted, the pastor must use great kindness and prudence, so as not to give offense. If a non-Catholic has been appointed as sponsor, the difficulty may sometimes be overcome by naming a sacristan or servant as sponsor and permitting the non-Catholic to act as witness.

(c) In Reference to the Capacity of the Recipient.—The minister must give the Sacrament only to those who are capable. Hence, he cannot baptize what is not human (e.g., uterine growths which do not pertain to a fetus), or not living (e.g., a stillborn infant), or not unbaptized (e.g., a convert or an infant about whose valid Baptism there is no reasonable doubt). Speculatively there is some difficulty about Baptism of unborn fetuses, of abortive fetuses, and of monstrosities (e.g., an infant with two heads or two hearts). For, as to the first, it seems that the physically unborn are incapable of spiritual rebirth; as to the second, it seems that the soul of an undeveloped fetus may be sub-human; and, as to the third, it may be doubtful whether a monstrosity is one individual or several individuals. Practically, however, one should proceed on the principle that the Sacraments are for men, and give the benefit of a doubt to the infants by conditional Baptism. Intra-uterine Baptism should not be used except in case of urgent necessity, and it is then permissible to employ a mixture of one part of chloride of mercury with two parts of water to avoid infection. Midwives, nurses, mothers, and physicians should be especially careful to baptize abortive fetuses, and should know how this can be done (see Commentaries on Canons 746-748).

(d) In Reference to the Willingness of the Recipient.—An infant is not required to will the Sacrament, and hence the perpetually insane, who are unable to distinguish between right and wrong, may be baptized without any desire on their part. But an adult must intend to be baptized (see 2671 b). Hence, the minister must inquire about the wishes of an adult candidate, If an unbaptized person is now out of his mind (insane, afflicted with lethargy or sleeping sickness, delirious), but formerly had the use of reason, he is classed with adults, and his intention has to be considered. He should not be baptized, therefore, until he comes to himself, unless there is danger of death and signs of a desire to receive Baptism were given before (Canons 745, 754).

(e) In Reference to the Worthiness of the Recipient.—The minister should remind the candidate of the duty of attrition. If the person who asks for Baptism wishes to retain certain habits (e.g., superstition, concubinage, or unlawful business) which cannot be reconciled with Christianity, he cannot be regarded as suited for Baptism. But in danger of death good faith should not be uselessly disturbed.

(f) In Reference to the Pastor.—Solemn Baptism either in or out of one’s territory may not be given without permission from the proper pastor who has jurisdiction (Canons 738-740). And a minister who is not the pastor of the baptized person must send notice of the Baptism to the pastor, as soon as possible, if the latter was not present (Canon 778).

(g) In Reference to Himself and the Sacrament.—The minister should inform himself, if necessary, about the existence or validity of a previous Baptism, and he should observe the ceremonies, essential and accidental, of his Rite. Foundlings should be baptized conditionally, unless it is certain that they have been already baptized validly (Canon 749). The internal dispositions of intention and state of grace are necessary, while for baptism of adults fasting is advisable (Canon 753).

2694. The Sacrament of Confirmation.—Next to Baptism, not in necessity or dignity but in likeness and in time, is Confirmation; for Confirmation completes the work begun in Baptism, and it is also frequently received immediately or next after Baptism. It may be defined as “the Sacrament in which through the anointing with chrism and the prayer of the bishop a baptized person is perfected and strengthened in the grace received and signed indelibly with the character of soldier of Jesus Christ.”

(a) The element of the Sacrament (remote matter) is chrism, that is, a mixture of olive oil and balsam specially blessed by the bishop and applied (proximate matter) by an anointing and the imposition of hands on the forehead of the recipient. The law of the Church requires that the chrism be new (i.e., made at the last previous consecration of oils), and that the anointing be made with the right thumb in the form of a cross.

2695. The Minister of Confirmation.—(a) Qualifications.—The ordinary minister of this Sacrament is only the bishop; but a priest may act as extraordinary minister, either from the common law (viz., Cardinals, Abbots, etc.), or from special indult (Canon 782). The bishop may confirm outsiders in his own diocese, unless their own Ordinary forbids, and with permission he may confirm outside his diocese (Canon 783). Since January 1, 1947, by force of the decree of the Congregation of the Discipline of the Sacraments (_Spiritus Sanctus_) the following were established as extraordinary ministers within the limits of their territories and for subjects in danger of death.

1) “pastors having their own territories, therefore excluding personal and family pastors, unless they have also their own territory.” Under this heading are included secular and religious pastors. It is to be noted that, since national parishes in the United States are assigned a definite territory, pastors of such parishes enjoy the privilege of this decree. Pastors of Negro and Indian parishes, even if they are considered to be personal pastors, may be included, for the jurisdiction is both personal and territorial. Military chaplains can not confirm in virtue of this decree.

2) “the vicars spoken of in Canon 471, and also parochial administrators (_vicarii oeconomi_).” The first group are canonically innominate and authors adopt various titles for the personages involved. However, the reference is always to the priests placed in actual charge of _cura animarum_ in parishes which have been fully incorporated. The second group mentioned are the _vicarii oeconomi_, priests appointed canonically as administrators of vacant parishes (see Canons 472, n.1; 473,1). All other vicars lack the power, namely, the Diocesan Administrator (_vicarius capitularis_), Vicar General, _Vicarius Substitutus_ (priest who takes place of absent pastor), _Vicarius Adjutor_ (assists a disabled pastor), _Vicarius Cooperator_ (curate), those who according to Canon 472, n.2, take temporary charge of a vacant parish prior to appointment of a true administrator, chaplains of schools, hospitals, and other charitable institutions (by rescript of Nov. 18, 1948, the faculty was extended also to chaplains of maternity hospitals and foundling homes in the United States, and this faculty is renewable), the seminary rector, religious superiors even in exempt communities.

3) “priests to whom is entrusted exclusively and permanently within a definite territory, and with a definite church, the complete care of souls together with the rights and duties of pastors.” Such territorial arrangements are not common in the United States. The reference may be to priests established as quasi-pastors in Canon 216, Sec.3 (hence pastors in missionary territory and prefectures), episcopal delegates to the territories later to be erected as parishes or to maintain the status of a perpetual vicarage. Perhaps the reference is only to special arrangements made by particular diocesan laws.

(b) Duties.—The ordinary minister of this Sacrament should confer it when his subjects reasonably request it, and the Ordinary should see that the Sacrament is administered to his people, if possible, at least every five years (Canon 785). It would be unreasonable, however, to expect a bishop to go to every sick or dying person who desires Confirmation, as the Sacrament is not necessary for salvation and the task would be morally impossible, The Sacrament should be performed validly, worthily, and rubrically. When Confirmation is given, fasting is of counsel, not of precept. The use of a sponsor in Confirmation seems to be a grave obligation, when possible. A recipient can have but one sponsor, and a sponsor can act for only one or two confirmandi, unless it appear to the minister that there is sufficient reason to have a sponsor act for more (Canon 794). The pastor of the recipient, if he is unaware of the Confirmation, should be notified as soon as possible (Canon 799).

(c) Various prescriptions, some of them subjects of special study, are attendant upon the grant of power to confirm to pastors and “equivalent pastors.” The major ones are summarily stated here. The pastor obtains this power when he acquires the office. It lasts as long as he holds office. The exercise of his power becomes unlawful if he falls under censure; in certain cases it may then even be invalid. Theologians disagree as to the precise nature of the power, whether it be of orders, of jurisdiction, of both, an intrinsic or extrinsic modification of orders, etc. The common opinion holds that it is solely a power of orders. Hence, Canon 209 may not be safely used here, and an ordinary assistant who attempts to confirm would not fall under any irregularity; a pastor, however, might, by misuse of his power, be not only deprived of it, but be placed under an irregularity. Use of the power is not dependent on the permission of the local Ordinary. It may be necessary to inquire however, whether the bishop wishes to confirm in particular cases. Episcopal instructions on this matter must be complied with.

(d) Subjects of the Extraordinary Minister. The decree, _Spiritus Sanctus_, in its second rule lays down a condition for the valid administration of Confirmation by the extraordinary minister and determines the proper subject. The new faculty is strictly personal (hence it may not be delegated to others) and strictly territorial (hence the administration must take place within the confines of the minister’s district and therein extends even to exempt places). The recipient must be “in real danger of death because of a serious illness from which it is foreseen that he will die.”

Before treating the illness established as a condition for validity, other conditions of the subject must be considered. The decree describes the proper recipient as _fidelis_ in two places. The question has been discussed whether this limits the subjects to Catholics and excludes validly baptized Protestants. Authors are not agreed. Perhaps, since the extraordinary minister can act only within the powers given him in the decree, he would have to interpret _fidelis_ as extending solely to Catholics. On May 1, 1948, the Congregation for the Oriental Church issued a grant of powers to the Latin extraordinary ministers to confer Confirmation under the same conditions to Catholics of the Oriental rite who live under the jurisdiction of a Latin Ordinary, who are in the territory of the Latin pastor and whose rite has no established parish or mission in the locality. (This grant of power was previously impossible by virtue of Canon 782, Sec.4.) In emergency cases there would be no need to await the arrival of the proper pastor. Since Ruthenian Catholics are not under the Latin Ordinaries in this country, it seems that the decree might not extend to them. The point is disputed, but it would be imprudent to act on the opinion that the Ruthenians are included until the question is officially settled. The recipient need not be a permanent resident in the territory by reason of domicile or quasi-domicile; physical presence suffices.