Main currents in American thought

I. The Genesis of Transcendentalism An expression of metaphysical Utopianism. Idealism long starved in New England. Derived from Unitarian doctrine of the open mind. German idealism and native impulses. A glorification of conscience and will—romantic. The note of mysticism. The outcome a movement of criticism

II. Ralph Waldo Emerson Transcendental Critic: His theory of transcendental criticism. The early Emerson—an ascetic. Influence of first trip abroad—Nature. The gist of Emersonianism. Reasons for the contrast between the real and ideal. Estimate of democracy; theory of the political state—the ethical absolute—a transcendental Jeffersonianism. Theory of economics—bias towards Physiocratic conception. A critic of contemporary America—its materialisms. Attitude towards reform

III. Henry Thoreau Transcendental Economist: His life-business to explore the meaning of wealth. His life an experiment in values. A Concord man who “signed off.” A Hellenist interpreting spiritual values. The problem of economics stated. Significance of Walden—suggestions of William Morris. The challenge of slavery: Civil Disobedience. Compared with Godwin’s Political Justice—doctrine of individual syndicalism. Admiration for John Brown. The extremest expression of eighteenth-century individualism

IV. Theodore Parker Transcendental Minister: His characteristics: a fighting man, a revolutionary. Sermon on The Transient and Permanent in Christianity—marks the second stage of Unitarianism. His studies in higher criticism; his doctrine. His conception of human perfectibility—evolutionary. A primitive democrat; a political critic. Attack on current materialisms—criticism of Webster. A modern

V. Margaret Fuller Rebel: An embodiment of transcendental rebellions. The contradictions in her character as explained by Freudian psychology. Her training—a victim of sex. Contemporary analysis of her character. An intellectual child of eighteenth-century romanticisms—influence of Goethe. Transcendentalism—Brook Farm. Woman in the Nineteenth Century and feminism. Work as a critic. Career in Europe. Influence of Jean Jacques. The price of her rebellions

II. Brahminism and history: The New England school: Ticknor, Jared Sparks—methods of the latter. Bancroft’s History of the United States—an attempt at a democratic interpretation. Prescott, Motley, Parkman—followers of the romantic school. Parkman considered

II. Nathaniel Hawthorne Skeptic: A temperament detached, rationalistic, unhopeful, skeptical about Utopias. Neither transcendental nor Unitarian in philosophy, but curious concerning evil. Intellectually unlocalized—his aloofness from romantic Salem. Like Jonathan Edwards in probing the psychology of sin. Tendency to symbolism and allegory. His intellectual poverty—revealed in American Notes. Brook Farm and The Blithedale Romance—reasons for his interpretation of Hollingsworth and Margaret Fuller. The sterility of his later years

I. Oliver Wendell Holmes—Beacon Street Wit: Decline of his reputation. Holmes and Paine as wits. A child of the eighteenth century turned romantic. A rationalist—hatred of Calvinism. Defense of Boston—a Brahmin rebel defending free thought. Attack on equalitarianism—dislike of the plutocracy—indifferent to proletarian problems. His heroes respectable. An amateur—a minor figure

II. James Russell Lowell—Cambridge Brahmin: Of the true Brahmin line. His intellectual confusions. Influence of his Tory heritage—the Lowells. His course determined by environment and certain dominant personalities. Three periods of his intellectual life: the Maria White period and his immersion in current radicalisms—reflections in his verse and prose; the professorial period—immersion in scholarship—his shortcomings as a critic—as a political writer; the ambassadorial period—influence of Godkin—resurgence of Brahmin conservatism—fear of democracy—of agrarian and proletarian movements—concern at political corruption—failure to understand its causes—faith in civil service reform. His escape to London—the final Lowell an English liberal

Conclusion: Effects of the Civil War on earlier romanticisms—destruction of the slave economy; strengthening of the rival agrarian and capitalistic economies. Certain anachronisms—eighteenth-century liberalism—local home rule—submerged by movement of consolidation. Romantic literary schools became obsolete. The sovereignty of the middle class and the emergence of realistic criticism